Thailand
Culture
Name
Thai
Alternative
Names
Siamese, Central Tai
Orientation
Identification. The
name "Thailand" is associated with the dominant ethnic group, Thai.
Thailand was never under European colonial rule. It was an absolute monarchy
until 1932, when it became a constitutional monarchy. In 1939 the country's
name was changed from Siam to Thailand. Military dictators ruled the nation
until the early 1970s; the military remained a powerful force in national
politics into the early 1990s. Since that time, its role has diminished, and a
new constitution was adopted in 1997.
The military governments after World War II promoted rapid economic
development and attempted to assimilate ethnic minorities. Rapid economic
growth continued until the late 1990s, when the economic boom of the early part
of the decade came to an abrupt end. As part of a trend toward devolution of
authority, the democratic governments of the 1990s adopted more liberal
policies with regard to ethnic minorities. However, members of ethnic
minorities continue to face many problems in regard to political rights and
economic security.
Location and Geography. The
Kingdom of Thailand has an area of 198,114 square miles (513,115 square
kilometers). The country is commonly divided into four main regions and borders
Burma, Laos, Cambodia, and Malaysia. The northern region is hilly, with much of
its population concentrated in upland valleys and the flood plains of rivers;
the dominant geographic feature is the Khorat Plateau. The southern region is a
narrow isthmus with hills running down the center.
The Thai (also known as the Central Tai) live mainly in the central
region, with closely related groups of Tai-speaking peoples occupying most of
the remainder of the nation. Smaller ethnic groups are scattered throughout the
country, especially in the north and the northeast. Bangkok has been the
capital since the late eighteenth century, when it replaced the earlier capital
of Ayutthaya, which was sacked by Burmese invaders in 1767. With a population
of almost 10 million, Bangkok is the most important city politically and
economically. About twenty smaller regional cities have populations of two
hundred to three hundred thousand.
Demography. The
population estimate for 2000 is approximately 62 million. There are about 75
ethnic groups, and approximately 84 percent of the population is Thai,
including people from other Tai-speaking ethnic groups; the Thai, constitute
about 36 percent of the population. The Thai-Lao account for about 32 percent
of the population; their territory formerly was part of the Lao kingdom. The
Lanna Thai account for about 8 percent of the national population. The Pak Thai
constitute about 8 percent of the population.
Other major ethnic groups include Chinese (about 12 percent of the
population), Malay-speaking Muslims (about 3 percent), and Khmer (about 2
percent). The majority of the Chinese live in central Thailand, especially in
urban areas. The Malay-speaking Muslims live near to the border with Malaysia.
The Khmer live near the Cambodian border.
There are communities of Korean- and Urdu-speaking peoples in Bangkok,
and there is a small population of Mon in central Thailand. Various peoples,
commonly designated as hill tribes, inhabit the northern mountain areas. The
total hill tribe population is about 500,000, with the Karen being the largest
group (about 350,000). There are several settlements of Palaung (about 5,000
people) near the Burmese border and several communities of Khmu, Phai, Mal, and
Mlabri (about 75,000 in total) near the border with Laos. Several small ethnic
groups in the northeast speak Mon-Khmer languages; the largest of these groups
is the Kuy (about 235,000). These groups have been largely assimilated into the
Tai-speaking populations. In the south, there are small groups of so-called sea
gypsies and aboriginal Malays (about 6,000 people). In the isolated inland
areas of the south, there are about 1,000 forest-dwelling peoples referred to
as Orang Asli in Malay.
Linguistic Affiliation. Thai
is a Daic language in the southwestern Tai group. Other Thai groups speak
related southern and east-central Thai languages. Large-scale Chinese migration
took place in the nineteenth century. Most of the Chinese in the country speak
dialects of Min Nan Chinese. There are twenty-four Mon-Khmer-speaking groups,
whose languages can be subdivided into four groups: Monic, Aslian, Eastern Mon-Khmer,
and Northern Mon-Khmer.
Seven Austronesian languages are spoken, all of which belong to the
Malayic Malayo-Polynesian group.
The main Austronesian language is Pattani Malay, which is spoken by
about 2.5 million people in the southern region. The Pattani Malay, Malay, and
Kedah Malay populations live in an area associated with the kingdom of Patani,
which fell under Thai control in 1786.
The nineteen Tibeto-Burman-speaking groups include nine groups that
speak Karen languages. Three Hmong-Mien languages are spoken in the north.
Various migrant communities speak Korean, Japanese, Tamil, and Urdu.
Thai is the national language and the medium for education and mass
communication. It is widely used by speakers of other Tai languages and is a
second language for most other people.
Symbolism. The
most potent national symbols are the king and images associated with Buddhism.
The monarch serves as the most important symbol of national identity and unity.
Images of the king appear frequently in public and in people's homes, and he is
featured often on television and the other mass media. His image is on all
banknotes and coins. Showing disrespect for the king is a serious legal
offense. Images of the Buddha and shrines are found in public buildings
(including schools and government offices) and homes as well as temples. The
promotion of Buddhism as a symbol of national identity has met with opposition
from the Muslim minority.
History
and Ethnic Relations
Emergence of the Nation. Evidence
of an agricultural civilization with metallurgical capabilities has been found
in northeastern Thailand; the earliest bronze artifacts date back to
approximately 3,000 years ago. In the eighth and ninth
centuries C.E. , Mon states influenced by Indian civilization occupied
portions of central and northern Thailand, where they were referred to as
Dvaravati. In Thailand, the most important Mon center was Nakhon Pathom west of
Bangkok. Mon influence declined in the eleventh century as the Khmer invaded
the area from the east. The Khmer occupied not only the Mon areas, but part of
northeastern Thailand.
As early as the fifth or sixth century, Tai-speaking peoples began
migrating from northern Vietnam and southern Yunnan into areas adjacent to the
Mekong River. The Tai in northern Thailand came into contact with the Mon, who
converted many of them to Theravada Buddhism. Tai-speaking peoples gradually
migrated southward and by the early eleventh century had moved into Mon
territory. Tai peoples living in central Thailand came under Khmer control as
the Khmer empire expanded. The Khmer referred to the Tai as Siams. The Tai in
the vicinity of Sukhothai revolted against the Khmer rulers in 1238 and
established a kingdom that promoted a writing system that formed the basis of
modern Thai. In the wake of declining Khmer power, the center of Thai power
shifted south to Ayutthaya, which was founded in 1351. In the north, the
kingdom of Lan Na was founded in 1259. The Lao kingdom of Lan Sang was founded
in 1353 and came to include much of northeastern Thailand.
The founder of the kingdom of Ayutthaya, Rama Thibodi, promoted
Theravada Buddhism and compiled a legal code based on Hindu sources and Thai
customs that remained important until the late nineteenth century. Ayutthaya
pushed into Khmer territory and sacked the capital of Angkor. Both Ayutthaya
and Lan Na became strong and prosperous states during the latter part of the
fifteenth century. After the deaths of the two rulers both kingdoms
degenerated. Lan Na witnessed several civil wars and came under Burmese
control. Ayutthaya was attacked by the Khmer and Burmese in the sixteenth
century briefly came under Burmese control. In 1585, Ayutthaya began a period
of rejuvenation. Starting with the establishment of a Portuguese embassy in
1511, there was a growing European presence in Ayutthaya.
In 1765, the kingdom was invaded again by the Burmese; in 1767, the
Burmese captured and destroyed the city. After pushing the Burmese back, the
Thai established a new capital at Thonburi. Chao Phraya Chakkri became king in
1782 and founded Bangkok. The third Chakkri ruler established a system of royal
titles, and named himself Rama III. During his reign, treaties were signed with
the United States and some European countries, and Christian missionaries were
allowed into the kingdom. Rama V (ruled 1868–1910) successfully resisted
European colonization and introduced modernizing reforms.
A group of young Thais who had studied abroad staged a coup in 1932 and
transformed the country into a constitutional monarchy. From 1935 to 1945, a
military dictator, Phibun Song-khram (commonly known as Phibun), ruled the
country. Phibun changed the name of Siam to Thailand. In 1945, there was a
brief return to civilian government, and the country's name was changed back to
Siam. Between 1947 and 1973, the country was ruled by military dictators. After
the brutal suppression of antigovernment demonstrators in 1973, military was
forced out of office, but in 1976 it again seized power.
In 1980, a more moderate government headed by Prem Tinsulanonda assumed
office. Prem is credited with achieving political and economic stability. This
period saw the end of a communist insurgency in the countryside, a gradual
transition to democracy and economic growth. An election was held in 1988, but
the elected government was overthrown by a military coup in 1991. Those who
staged the coup appointed a civilian prime minister and a cabinet of civilian
technocrats. A new constitution was passed in 1991, and an election was held in
1992, returning the country to civilian rule. After a subsequent period of
political and economic instability a far more democratically reformist
constitution was promulgated in late 1997. National elections were held under
this constitution in early 2001.
National Identity. In
the twentieth century, the culture of the Central Tai came to dominate the
national culture. The military dictator, Phibun, passed a number of Cultural
Mandates that promoted a centralized national culture and identity. Other
mandates promoted the use of the national dress and the national language.
The term "Thai identity" was coined in the late 1950s. The
Ministry of Education played an important role in expanding the national
culture. The military government that seized power in 1976 viewed the national
identity as something that had to be defended against Western cultural
influences. A National Culture Commission was established in 1979 to coordinate
efforts to defend the national culture. Those efforts were closely linked to
national security and occurred against the backdrop of a communist insurgency
that involved members of ethnic minorities.
In the 1980s, a revival of regional and local identities began,
especially in the northern and northeastern regions where there was a
resurgence of local foods, celebrations, and styles of traditional dress.
Democratic reforms and moves to devolve power since the early 1990s have
allowed this process to accelerate. The sense of national identity is no longer
viewed as precluding local and regional identities.
Ethnic Relations. Thailand
often is portrayed as a culturally homogeneous country, but there are
approximately seventy-five distinct ethnolinguistic groups. The Central Tai is
the dominant ethnic group and accounts for 36 percent of the population. The
Thai-Lao and Lanna Tai, who together account for about 40 percent of the
population, were not assimilated into the national culture until the twentieth
century.
There have been Chinese in Thailand for centuries. In the nineteenth
century, their numbers more than doubled until they constituted about 10
percent of the population. Along with Westerners, the Chinese merchant class
dominated the economy in the nineteenth century, especially with the
exportation of rice.
In the early twentieth century, the Chinese established their own
educational institutions, resulting in antipathy toward them under the
nationalistic Phibun regime, which blamed the Chinese for the country's
economic problems. In 1938, the Phibun government taxed the Chinese, limited
the use of their language in schools, and closed most Chinese-language
newspapers. Chinese immigration came to a virtual halt.
While anti-Chinese sentiment remained strong, by the 1970s virtually
all the Chinese had Thai citizenship.
With the growth of a more open and democratic society in the 1990s, the
Chinese began to express their culture openly.
Since it came under Thai control in 1786, the Malay Muslim population
has posed difficulties for the Thai state. This region has mounted numerous
rebellions against central authority over the past two centuries.
In 1948, the Phibun regime banned Malay and Islamic organizations,
sparking a rebellion that was violently crushed. Education has been a point of
conflict between Thai authorities and the Malay Muslims since the government
introduced compulsory education in 1921. As a result, many Muslims sent their
children to Malaysia and other Muslim countries to be educated. In the 1960s,
returning students joined various independence movements. Guerrilla activities
in the south reached their height between 1970 and 1975. Counterinsurgency
operations failed to end support for the separatists. In the late 1980s, the
national political environment changed with greater sensitivity to the Muslim
religion and culture. The civilian government elected in 1992 initiated reforms
to ease tension in the Muslim south.
The Thai government treats the Khmer as part of a generic northeastern
Thai ethnic category called Isan. Efforts to assimilate the Khmer into the
national culture in the 1960s and 1970s were spurred by concern over their
support for communist insurgents in the northeast. In the 1990s there was a
cultural revival among the Khmer in the northeast that included the formation
of dance and music groups to promote Khmer culture. The hill tribes in the
north, with the exception of the Lawa and Karen, are relatively recent
immigrants. The majority of hill tribe members did not become citizens until
recently and lacked political rights. These hill tribes have faced economic
difficulties related to their lack of land rights. The authorities generally
have viewed them as primitive peoples. In the 1980s and 1990s, there was
encroachment on their land by lowlanders, who believed that their presence was
a key factor in environmental degradation in highland areas. Proponents of
rights for the tribes in the 1990s led to the granting of citizenship for the
hill tribes. Nevertheless, there are many conflicts, including those involving
corrupt government officials and business interests that are attempting to
exploit highland resources.
Urbanism,
Architecture, and the Use of Space
A little over 20 percent of the population lives in urban areas,
including about ten million residents of the Bangkok metropolitan area. Over
the last decade, regional towns have undergone rapid growth.
Thailand's second largest city, with a population of around 300,000, is
Nakon Ratchasima (also known as Korat). Until the early 1980s it was a
relatively small country town, but industrialization has resulted in rapid
growth. Other northeastern towns also have experienced rapid growth. Economic
growth in the southern region (in part associated with the rubber, shrimp, and
fishing industries) in the late 1980s and 1990s also resulted in sharp
population increases.
In the past, towns were centers of government administration, Chinese
business, and the Buddhist religion, featuring government offices and housing
for civil servants, Chinese shops and storage facilities, and Buddhist temples.
The growth of the cities is reflected in a lack of planning and growing
congestion, but the core features of the cities have not changed. Wood has
given way to cement as the main building material, and new forms of
architecture include high-rise buildings for offices and residences, and
air-conditioned shopping malls. The 1980s witnessed the emergence of suburban
housing developments and shopping complexes. There are few public parks, and
urban planning is focused on building roads.
The use of waterways for transportation is waning.
Modern government offices are highly standardized to instill a sense of
national unity, and even Buddhist religious architecture has become uniform.
There were regional differences in houses, especially in rural areas, but these
differences are disappearing. The traditional house is raised on a framework of
wooden posts to provide protection from floods and intruders, and to create a
multipurpose space under the house. This underpart served as a place for women
to work, a place to sleep during the hot season, a storage space, and a place
to keep domestic animals. The size and complexity of the raised area varied
with the wealth and status of the family. The house is constructed of
prefabricated units that fit together with wooden pegs. The raised part can be
divided into an open area and an enclosed area. The open area includes a front
veranda that is partially shaded. People usually sit on mats on the veranda.
The rear of the house has an open balcony for washing clothes, doing laundry,
and performing other domestic chores. This area also is used to lie out food to
dry, and for spinning and sewing. The interior includes a living room and a
sleeping space. People usually sit on mats, and there is little furniture.
There may be a cooking area in the living room in smaller houses, but usually
there is a separate space for cooking. In larger houses, there is a separate
kitchen and granary.
Food
and Economy
Read more about the Food
and Cuisine of Thailand.
Food in Daily Life. Rice
is the staple food at every meal for most people. All food is brought to the
table at once rather than being served in courses. A meal will include rice,
dishes with gravy, side dishes, soup, and a salad. Whereas in central and
southern Thailand polished white rice is eaten, in the north and northeast
people eat glutinous or sticky rice. Fish and shellfish are popular. Curries
are eaten throughout the country, but there are regional varieties. Northern
and northeastern food is similar to that of Laos and consists of more meat,
including meat served as sausages, or as larb (a salad is
usually made of raw meat). Chinese food has influenced the national cuisine,
especially in regard to noodle dishes. Sweets are eaten as snacks. A popular
snack is green papaya salad. In the past, there were marked differences between
the food of the common people and that of the nobility. Women in noble
households were proficient at decorative carving of vegetables and fruits. In
recent decades, this practice has become popular among the middle classes.
Whereas commercial alcoholic drinks are common throughout the country,
non-commercial alcohol made from rice is still drunk.
Basic Economy. Thailand
has a relatively diversified export-oriented economy that grew rapidly in the
latter part of the twentieth century until the crash of 1997. Manufacturing and
tourism led its growth, but agriculture continued to play an important
role—employing over 60 percent of the workforce. The country remains a major
producer and exporter of agricultural products, including rice, rubber, and
tapioca.
Thailand's currency is called the baht .
Land Tenure and Property. In
the past, all land was owned by the crown in theory, but individuals had use
rights if they paid taxes on the land that they occupied. Because of the low
population density, land ownership in rural areas was not a matter of concern.
Large agricultural estates were rare. The commercial buying and selling of land
took place in the main towns, where commercial life was concentrated. Urban
land was often owned by Sino-Thais. In the 1950s, around 90 percent of farmers
owned their own land. Strong nationalist sentiments influenced the 1941 Land
Act, which made it difficult for non-Thais to own land. Informal means of
circumventing these restrictions on land ownership helped create a chaotic
system in which the title to land was difficult to determine. Under the new
constitution and after the economic collapse, efforts were made to reform land
ownership. Many restrictions on foreign ownership were removed, including those
placed on Thais married to foreigners and their children.
Commercial Activities. Thailand
has a large and relatively modern commercial sector, with domestic and foreign
commercial banks and a stock exchange. The 1997 crash resulted in the closing
of some financial institutions and the consolidation of others. Producers of
agricultural products traditionally sold their products through local brokers,
but since the 1980s there has been a trend toward contract production for sale
to large firms. Most towns and cities have small shops and traditional markets
with small-scale traders who sell food, consumer goods, hardware, and
medicines. In larger towns, shopping malls and large multipurpose stores have
assumed a significant role since the 1980s.
Major Industries. Major
manufacturing industries include motor vehicle and motorcycle units and parts,
computers, garments and footwear, electrical appliances, and plastic products.
There also are large commercial farming and fishing industries. The main
agricultural products are rice, tapioca, sugar, corn, and fruits. In addition
to fresh and frozen agricultural products, food-processing industries produce
canned and frozen products. Thailand has a large fishing industry and is a
major producer of farmed shrimp. The country is one of the world's leading
producers of rubber. Cement production is also important. Mining has declined
in recent decades. The country produces some oil and natural gas but must
import gas and petroleum products to meet domestic demand. It is a major center
for cutting and selling gems. Thailand is Southeast Asia's top tourist
destination, and that industry is the largest earner of foreign exchange. Japan
is the largest foreign investor; the United States is also a major source of
foreign investment.
Trade. In
the mid-1990s, exports were equal in value to about 25 percent of the gross
domestic product. The most important exports are computers, integrated
circuits, and related parts. Other major exports include electric appliances,
garments, rubber, plastic products, shrimp, footwear, gems and jewelry, rice,
and canned seafood. Major imports include nonelectric machinery and parts,
electrical machinery and parts, chemicals, vehicle parts, iron and steel, crude
oil, computers and parts, metal products, and integrated circuits. After the
1997 crash, the manufacturing sector declined sharply, especially the sectors
that were highly dependent on imports, such as garments. By late 1998, however,
manufacturing had begun to recover. The United States and Japan are the largest
markets for the country's exports and suppliers of its imports. Neighboring
countries, especially China, have become increasingly trading important
partners.
Division of Labor. The
division of labor in the agricultural sector is based on gender, with little
specialization by ethnicity. Ethnic Chinese have long played a major role in
commerce and industry, but few jobs or professions are the monopoly of a single
ethnic group. Traditional craft specialization is sometimes associated with
specific villages or communities. Primarily ethnic minorities produce
hand-woven textiles. Positions in modern technical professions such as medicine
and engineering are related to education and specialized training and thus
exclude members of the smaller rural ethnic minorities.
Social
Stratification
Classes and Castes. In
the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the social strata included an
elite of Thai nobles, a small commercial middle class of Chinese and Europeans,
and a lower class that included mostly rural farmers. With the development of a
more modern economy, the structure of social stratification has become more
complex. Noble birth continues to have some bearing on status, but the modern
class system is based primarily on wealth. There now is a much larger middle
class. The growth of towns and cities has given rise to a class of urban poor
in addition to the traditional rural poor. In addition to regional differences
in income, there are regional differences in income distribution: Income is
distributed more equally in the center and south than it is in the north and
northeast.
Political
Life
Government. Thailand
is a constitutional monarchy. The king, on occasion, involves himself directly
in political affairs when national stability is threatened. Between 1932 and
the early 1990s, the government was dominated by a military and bureaucratic
elite. After the elections in 1992, political parties opposed to military
intervention formed a coalition government, with the leader of the Democratic
Party becoming prime minister. Parliament was dissolved in 1995, and the
Democratic Party lost to the Thai Nation Party.
That government lasted only until 1996, when a former military
commander formed a coalition government and became prime minister. The economic
collapse of 1997 led to the fall of that government and the eventual assumption
of power by a coalition government led by the Democratic Party with its leader,
Chuan Leekpai, as prime minister.
A reformist constitution was promulgated in late 1997 with the intent
to enhance participatory democracy. Attention has focused on eliminating
corrupt political practices and devolving power. Devolution has included
holding elections to a wider range of local offices. A National
Counter-Corruption Commission was formed and given some powers to monitor electoral
fraud.
Thailand held its first national election under the 1997 constitution
in January 2001. The newly formed Thai Rak Thai party led by Taksin Shinawatra,
one of Thailand's richest men, defeated the Democrats and won 248 of
parliament's 500 seats. The Thai Rak Thai party was joined by the smaller New
Aspiration party to form a coalition with 325 seats. Voters appeared to have
grown tired of Chuan Leekpai's six-party coalition government. They were lured
by Taksin Shinawatra's promises of expansive economic policies, including his
pledge to give every one of the country's 70,000 villages 1 million baht (about
U.S. $25,000) in development funds. The election was fraught with corruption,
which the National Counter-Corruption Commission proved to have only limited
influence in curtailing.
Leadership and Political Officials. The
kings of the Chakri dynasty had numerous wives and concubines, resulting in the
existence of a large number of nobles who were related to the king; in
addition, some commoners were given high positions. In central Thailand,
administration was directly linked to Bangkok and the king; in more remote
areas, there were vassal princes. Below the government officials were freemen
and slaves. The system was stratified, but social mobility was possible. After
the advent of military rule and the end of the absolute monarchy in the 1930s,
the state remained highly centralized, with government officials being
appointed by those in power in Bangkok, primarily military officers and former
officers. In the new system, power was gained through factional struggles
within the military. The 1980s and 1990s witnessed the rise of "money
politics," as wealthy civilians came to play an increasingly important
role in politics. Increased democratization in the 1990s resulted in a much
more complex political system. While wealth continued to be important, many
major political figures claimed to speak for the poor, especially the rural
poor. The newly formed government of Taksin Shinawatra is seen by some
observers as a return to the old politics of wealth and patronage. Taksin is
one of the country's wealthiest men and his party is held together mainly
through an extensive patronage network. In the 1990s, a growing number of
Muslims from the south attained elected political positions. Similar political
gains have not occurred among the smaller ethnic minorities.
Social Problems and Control. The
government generally respects the human rights of its citizens. There is
considerable freedom of expression, but there are laws that prohibit criticism
of the royal family, threats to national security, and speech that may incite
disturbances or insult Buddhism. The constitution makes it unlawful for the
government to censor, ban, license, or restrict print or broadcast media except
in times of crisis. While newspapers and periodicals practice some
self-censorship, media criticism of public figures, political parties, and the
government is widespread. Freedom of religion is protected by law.
Thailand is no longer a significant producer of narcotics, but is still
an important route for international heroin trafficking, and domestic
consumption of narcotics has increased dramatically. Social problems associated
with narcotics trafficking include money laundering, police and military
corruption, and criminal activity by addicts. Political corruption is widely
viewed as a serious problem.
The National Police Department, with over one-hundred thousand
personnel, includes the provincial police, metropolitan police, Border Patrol
Police (BPP), and Central Investigation Bureau. The police force has a culture
of corruption, and demands for bribes are routine. This corruption encourages
illegal activities such as income tax evasion, gambling, drug trafficking,
smuggling, and prostitution. Enforcement of the law is lax, but in many
respects the police force works well. In general, the law requires that police
officers making an arrest have warrants, and it is rare for police officers to
be tried for extrajudicial killings or the use of excessive force.
The legal system blends principles of traditional Thai and Western
laws. In the Muslim south, Koranic law is applied. There are courts of the
first instance, courts of appeal, and the supreme court, along with a separate
military court. A constitutional court was created in 1998 to interpret the new
constitution. There is no trial by jury. Career civil service judges preside
over the courts, and supreme court judges are appointed by the king. Judicial
appointments and structures are not subject to parliamentary review, and judges
have a reputation for venality.
Conditions in prisons are poor because of overcrowding, and medical
care in prisons does not meet minimum international standards. Access to
prisons is not restricted, and the government permits visits by human rights
monitors and the Thai International Red Cross.
Military Activity. Since
1992, the military's role in political affairs has been reduced. Responsibility
for internal security and law enforcement is mainly in the hands of the police.
The military's primary role is national defense, especially problems along the
border with Burma. However, former senior military officers still account for a
large percentage of the elected members of parliament and the military retains
wide-ranging legal powers.
The total strength of the military is around 270,000, including the
army, navy, and the air force. In addition, there are about five-hundred thousand
reserves. Male citizens between ages twenty-one and thirty are required to
serve in the military for two years. Under civilian governments, defense
spending has declined. Although there is a domestic arms industry, most
military supplies are provided by the United States and Great Britain.
Nongovernmental
Organizations and Other Associations
Local, domestic, and international nongovernmental organizations are
active in social welfare, heath, political reform, the status of women, the
environment, religion, and business. Those organizations face few restrictions
and are relatively free to publish their findings. Government officials
generally are cooperative with such organizations.
There continues to be discrimination against the hill tribes, which are
widely viewed as being involved in narcotics trafficking. The Tribal Assembly
of Thailand has lobbied the government for greater transparency in decisions
affecting those tribes, especially in regard to the granting of citizenship and
land issues.
Gender
Roles and Statuses
Division of Labor by Gender. Both
men and women do agricultural work, and although some tasks tend to be assigned
mainly to men or women, that division of labor is not adhered to rigidly. There
is also some variation in the allotment of tasks according to region. In the
north it is traditional for men alone to prepare land for planting and sow
seeds, but in central Thailand, women sometimes perform those tasks. Women
transplant rice seedlings in all areas, but sometimes men do that job as well.
Harvesting is done by both men and women. Domestic work is done mostly by
women. Weaving usually is done by women. Pottery, basketry, plaiting, making
lacquerware, and making umbrellas can be done by men or women. Small-scale
market selling and itinerant trading are conducted by both men and women.
Transportation of goods and people by animal, carts, boats, and motor vehicles
is done mainly by men. Religious specialists and traditional healers generally
are male. Traditional theatrical and musical performances involve both genders.
In the modern professions, women work mainly in teaching and nursing.
The Relative Status of Women and Men. Gender
inequality is manifest in violence against women, societal discrimination
against women, and trafficking in women for prostitution. Efforts to improve
the status of women have increased, and the 1997 constitution provides women
with equal rights and protections, although, some inequalities in the law
remain. Domestic abuse affects women in all social classes. Specific laws
concerning domestic violence have not been enacted, and the rules of evidence
make prosecuting such cases difficult. Domestic violence often is not reported,
since many victims and the police view it as a private matter. Sexual
harassment in the workplace was made illegal in 1998, but only in the private
sector, and no cases have been prosecuted. Thailand serves as a source, place
of transit, and destination for trafficking in women for prostitution.
Prosecutions for such activities are rare.
Women constitute forty-four percent of the labor force. Laws require
employers to give women equal wages and benefits for equal work, and there are
no legal restrictions on women owning and managing businesses. An increasing
number of women hold professional positions, and women's access to higher
education has grown. More than half the university graduates are women. Police
and military academies do not accept female students. There is still a gap
between the average salaries of men and women since women are concentrated in
lower-paying jobs. There are no legal restrictions on women's participation in
politics. While there have been improvements at the lower levels, women remain
underrepresented in national politics.
Marriage,
Family, and Kinship
Marriage. In
general, individuals find their own marriage partners, although the choice of a
spouse may be influenced by one's family among the wealthy. The value of goods
provided to the couple and elaborateness of the wedding ceremony vary with the
wealth of the families of the couple. Polygyny was common among the elite in
the past but is now rare, although wealthy and powerful men often have a de
facto second wife known as a minor wife. Divorce is not difficult and is
usually a matter of a couple ceasing to live together and dividing their
property.
Domestic Unit. The
ideal is for a married couple to establish its own household as soon as
possible. However, especially among poorer couples, residence with the parents
of the husband or wife is common. The nuclear family is the core of the
domestic unit, but it often includes members of the extended family. Including
unmarried siblings, widowed parents, and more distant unmarried or widowed male
and female relatives. The husband is nominally the head of the household, but
the wife has considerable authority. Female members of the household are
responsible for most domestic chores.
Inheritance. Property
generally is divided equally among the children after the parents die. However,
it is common practice for one child, usually the youngest daughter, to assume
primary responsibility for looking after the parents in their old age, and this
person inherits the family home.
Kin Groups. The
Central Tai reckon descent bilaterally. Various forms of kin groups may be
formed. The most common type is formed by siblings, married children, and
sometimes more distant relatives living in a multihousehold compound. Members
of these groups may share domestic and other tasks. Sometimes larger kin groups
encompass several compounds to form a hamlet cluster. In some instances, a
hamlet cluster forms around a wealthy and powerful individual.
Socialization
Infant Care. Adults
take a great deal of interest in children, including the children of other
people. A mother keeps her baby with her whenever she leaves the house. Young
children are pampered and given considerable freedom of movement and are
allowed to handle almost anything that catches their attention. Weaning usually
takes place when a child is two or three years old.
Child Rearing and Education. Children
in rural areas grow up surrounded by the implements that they will later use
and see adults performing domestic, agricultural, and artisanal tasks. In the
past, young boys attended school in a nearby Buddhist monastery, where they
would be taught to read and write.
Girl's education took place mainly at home as they learned to perform
domestic tasks. After 1932, the government secularized the public school system
by replacing monks with trained teachers. In the late 1990s, eighty-eight
percent of children of primary school age were enrolled in schools and
ninety-three percent of the adult population was literate. However, the
economic crisis of the late 1990s resulted in an increase in the number of
children leaving school. The government raised compulsory education requirements
from six to nine years in 1999 and is attempting to improve educational
standards.
Higher Education. Institutes
of higher education include comprehensive universities, technical institutes,
and religious universities. Traditionally, education was handled by religious
bodies. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a growing number of
people went abroad for higher education. The first university, Chulalongkorn
University, was founded in 1916. That university initially served mainly to
train civil servants. An Arts and Crafts School was established in the 1920s.
After the 1932 revolution, Thammasat University was founded. This was an open
university with unrestricted admission and an emphasis on legal training.
Chulalongkorn University tended to cater to the elite, while Thammasat
University was more populist. In 1942, the Arts and Crafts School attained the
status of a university, Silpakorn University. All three of these institutes are
in Bangkok. A fourth institute was added in 1948 after the reorganization of
advanced military education at the Chulalongkorn Royal Military Academy, whose
graduates came to dominate not only the military but also politics. Admission
to the military academy was restricted to "native Thai" until 1973,
mainly to keep out ethnic Chinese.
In 1960, less than one percent of the population had completed a higher
education. In the 1960s and 1970s, new universities were founded, including the
first regional university and a number of technical colleges and teacher
training colleges.
Buddhist educational bodies continue to play a role in education,
offering not only religious education but a wide range of other subjects. There
are also private universities which tend to focus on business education. There
has been a boom in the growth of private higher educational institutes since
the early 1990s, and plans are in place for the privatization of public
universities.
Etiquette
The Thai and other Buddhists follow the widespread Buddhist custom of
not touching a person on the head, which is considered the highest part of the
body. Patting a child on the head is thought to be dangerous to the well-being
of the child. A person should not point the feet at anyone or at an image of
Buddha. Footwear is removed when entering temple complexes, and it is polite to
remove footwear when entering a house. Buddhist monks are not supposed to come
into contact with women. It is traditional to greet a person with a prayerlike
gesture called a wai . It is considered improper to lose one's
temper or show too much emotion in public.
Religion
Religious Beliefs. About
eighty-five percent of the people are Theravada Buddhists, and the monarch must
be a Buddhist. Virtually all Tai-speaking peoples are Theravada Buddhists, as
are members of many of the ethnic minorities. The Buddhism of Central Tais
often is referred to as Lankavamsa, reflecting its origins in Sri Lanka. Thai
Buddhism, however, is a syncretic religion that borrows from earlier animistic
beliefs, Hinduism, and Christianity. A noticeable manifestation of animism in
Thai Buddhism are the spirit houses associated with almost all houses and
buildings. These usually are small model houses placed on a pedestal, that
serve as a home for the spirits associated with the site. These houses are
decorated and presented with daily offerings. Many large trees also are
considered to serve as the home of spirits and are decorated and given
offerings.
Approximately ten percent of the population is Muslim, primarily ethnic
Malays in the south. Although Christian missionaries have been active in the
country since the nineteenth century, only about one percent of the population
is Christian. The Christian population consists primarily of non-Tai ethnic
minorities in the north and ethnic Vietnamese and Chinese. There are small
numbers of animists, Confucianists, Taoists, Mahayana Buddhists, and Hindus.
Religious Practitioners. The
majority of religious practitioners are Buddhist monks. Most young men become
Buddhist novices and go to live in a monastery. While most young men remain at
the monastery for a short time before returning to the secular life, some
become ordained monks. A person who wants to become a monk is expected to be
free of debt and certain diseases, have the permission of his parents or
spouse, to agree to follow the disciplinary rules of the monkhood, and not
become involved in secular life. Monks are expected to lead a life of
aestheticism but commonly perform important functions in the community,
especially as counselors. A variety of religious practitioners are associated
with the animistic side of the religious beliefs of most Buddhists, including
exorcists, spirit doctors, astrologers, and diviners.
Rituals and Holy Places. A
number of Buddhist religious festivals are held throughout of the country, and
there are local events related to particular places and individuals. The
Buddhist religious calendar begins with Songkran, in mid-April when images of
Buddha are washed and monks are offered special alms. This celebration is
marked by dousing people with water and festive behavior including dancing,
singing, and theatrical performances. Visakha Puja in May celebrates Buddha's
birth, enlightenment, and entrance into nirvana. The day includes the
ceremonial watering of the banyan trees that represent the tree under which
Buddha sat when he attained enlightenment. Asanha Puja celebrates a sermon
given by Buddha. Khao Phansaa in July marks the start of the three-month lenten
period. It is at this time that young males become novices. Lent is considered
a period of spiritual retreat for monks, who are expected to remain in the
monasteries. Thawt Kathin from mid-October to mid-November marks the end of
lent. During this period, monastic robes and other paraphernalia are given to
monks. In some communities, there is a celebration to produce new garments for
monks and images of Buddha in which members of the community work together to
produce the cloth in a single day. Magha Puja in February commemorates Buddha's
preaching to enlightened monks. It culminates in a candlelit procession at
temples.
Death and the Afterlife. Buddhists
believe that those who die are reborn in a form that is appropriate to the
amount of merit they accumulated while alive. The cycle of death and rebirth is
believed to continue as long as ignorance and craving remain. The cycle can be
broken only through enhanced personal wisdom and the elimination of desire.
Funerals involve either burial or cremation. The funeral ceremony includes a
procession of monks and mourners who accompany the coffin to the cemetery or
crematorium, with monks chanting and performing rites along the way. Funerals
for monks tend to be very elaborate, while people who have died a violent death
are buried quickly, with very little ceremony, since their spirits are believed
to linger after death as malevolent ghosts.
Medicine
and Health Care
The health of the population has improved over the last few decades,
with increased life expectancy and lower rates of major diseases. An exception
to this trend is the AIDS epidemic. The spread of AIDS is related to both
sexual practices and narcotics use. The government has devoted substantial
resources toward AIDS education and awareness programs and AIDS-related
research.
The health infrastructure includes facilities and programs provided by
the public sector, nongovernmental organizations, and the private sector. The
majority of health resources are concentrated in urban areas, where a marked
difference in access to health facilities depends on wealth. Private sector
facilities exist almost exclusively in urban areas. Public health facilities in
rural areas include district hospitals and community health centers. In small
towns and villages, health care is provided mainly by village health
communicators and village health volunteers who receive little training. In
urban areas, private hospitals are becoming important providers for the wealthy
and the middle class. In the 1990s, the government adopted a policy of
self-reliance that included greater attention to classical traditional medicine
and herbal folk medicine. A government sponsored, codified system of
traditional medicine draws on elements of Chinese and Indian medicine. Many
unlicensed healers practice folk medicine.
Secular
Celebrations
Most celebrations are associated with the Buddhism or other religions.
The most important secular holidays are related to the monarchy. Celebrations
include Chakkri Day (6 April), commemorating Rama I, the founder of the Chakri
Dynasty; Coronation Day (5 May), commemorating the coronation of the current
king; the Royal Plowing Ceremony (second week in May), an ancient ritual held
near the Royal Palace in Bangkok to start the rice-planting season; the queen's
birthday (12 August); Chulalongkorn Day (23 October), held in commemoration of
King Chulalongkorn (Rama V); and the current king's birthday (5 December).
Other secular celebrations include Constitution Day (10 December) and New
Year's Day.
The
Arts and Humanities
Support for the Arts. Support
for the arts comes from both the public and private sectors. The Department of
Fine Arts underwrites programs throughout the country, and there a national
theater. Silpakorn University is the main public educational institution for
the arts, and there is a national College of Dance and Music. The Foundation
for the Promotion of Supplementary Occupational and Supplementary Techniques,
founded in 1976, is associated with the queen and runs projects throughout the
country for traditional artisans. There are private art galleries, mainly in
Bangkok, and private auction houses have become a commercial outlet for paintings.
Literature. Written
literature dates back to the Sukhothai period (1250–1350), and earlier
traditions. The oldest known poem, the Suphasit Phra Ruong, was
written in the late 1200s. The Traiphum Khatha (1345), is a treatise on
Buddhist cosmology.
Poetry from the fifteenth century includes epics, poems based on the
life of Buddha, and the Lilit Phra Lo, Thailand's first love
story. The reign of King Narai in the seventeenth century is considered the
golden age of Thai literature. Most of this literary work consisted of epics
and love stories written in poetic form. Cau Fa Thamathibet (1715–1755) is
famous for so-called boat songs, which abound in mythical allusions.
The eighteenth century saw the emergence of a new genre of
poetry, lakhon. This was a type of theatrical poetry in which
players positioned themselves before an audience and recited texts derived from
the Ramakien (the Thai version of the Ramayana ), Inau (an
epic of Javanese origin), and Anirut tales (which were more
local in origin).
King Rama II was a poet, and during his reign epics expanded in scale
and in performance. There were some famous female poets during this period,
including Khun Phum, who wrote a poetic eulogy for Rama IV. During the reign of
King Chulalongkorn (Rama V), prose writing emerged and poetry became more
realistic. Prince Damrong Ratchanuphap (1861–1947) compiled histories of Thai
literature.
The modern period has witnessed the emergence of many new forms of
poetry and popular fiction. This fiction is realistic, often portraying the
lives of common people and the underclass in the face of adversity.
While most of the stories are set in central Thailand, there has also
been regional literature, such as the novels of Khamphun Bunthami, which are
set in the northeast. Since the 1970s a good deal of fiction and poetry has focused
on social criticism.
Graphic Arts. The
graphic arts include art forms associated with Buddhist temples such as
sculpture in wood, stucco, and stone; mural painting; and bronze castings of
images of Buddha. Other forms of graphic arts include lacquerware,
mother-of-pearl inlay, gold work, nielloware, silverware, wood carving,
ceramics, basketry and plaiting, weaving, and painting on paper or canvas.
In the Ayutthaya and Bangkok periods, there were distinct royal and
common textile traditions. The nobility imported textiles from China, India,
and Persia and received special textiles as tribute from neighboring regions.
Commoners produced clothing for themselves until the nineteenth century, when
imported cloth became widely available. There are still distinct regional
styles of weaving that include the production of special hand-woven cloth for
sale to elite customers in urban areas. There are many local, regional, and
national weaving competitions and fairs to promote textiles.
Painting traditionally was done in tempera in the form of murals on
temple walls as well as on cloth and paper. While Buddhist themes were
predominant, temple murals often included depictions of secular objects.
Artistic styles initially were influenced by Sri Lanka and southern India and
later were influenced by China and the West. King Chulalongkorn (Rama V)
imported Western works of art and Western artists.
Especially noteworthy were realistic painted portraits and statues of
prominent individuals. In 1910, King Vajiravudh tried to revive traditional
art, by creating the Department of Fine Arts in 1912 and the Arts and Crafts
School in 1913. The Italian-born sculpture Corrado Feroci became a central
figure in creating modern art in Thailand. As director of the Fine Arts
University (Silpakorn University), he is widely viewed as the father of modern
art in the country. The university held the first National Exhibition of Art in
1949, and this annual event became central in defining the state of
contemporary art.
Much of the work of modern Thai artists has mirrored trends in Europe
and North America, but many artists have mixed imported styles with subjects
associated with the national culture.
Performance Arts. Classical
dance developed from folk dances and incorporated elaborate Indian hand
gestures and arm and leg movements, probably through the Mon and Khmer
cultures. Various forms of dance, including masked dance dramas, are shown on
Sukhôtâi stone inscriptions. The eighteenth century is considered the golden
age of classical dance and dance drama. Although many musicians and dancers of
Ayutthaya were taken by force to the Burmese royal court in 1767, those who
remained behind taught their traditions to others during the early Bangkok
period.
Classical dance and drama were attacked by leftists in the 1970s
because of their links to the aristocracy.
When the military returned to power in 1976, it promoted classical art
forms. In 1977, the military regime held a national festival of dance and drama
that included classical forms and patriotic plays glorifying the country's
past. In recent years, classical, folk, and modern dance and drama have been
popular. Folk dances are regional in character. Each dance style is accompanied
by different musical instruments.
Dances in the central region have been influenced by courtly
traditions. Southern dances have been influenced by Sri Lankan and southern
Indian styles. Individual dance styles are associated with many of the ethnic
minorities.
The
State of the Physical and Social Sciences
Teaching, training, research, and publishing in the physical and social
sciences are well developed. Most higher educational institutions offer courses
in the physical and social sciences, and a number of government and
government-sponsored institutes and agencies work in those fields. However, an
insufficient number of university students are pursuing degrees in the physical
sciences. The government has launched a number of programs to encourage
students to go into the physical sciences.
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